Tag: inflation

2022 update: Eskom tariff increases vs inflation since 1988 (with projections to 2024)

by Sean Moolman

In 2015, 2017 and 2019 we published infographics showing Eskom annual tariff increases since 1988 compared to inflation.

Following Eskom’s court order success against NERSA in early 2021, it increased electricity prices by an average of 15.63% in April 2021. In April 2022, a further increase of 9.61% was approved. So what do the numbers look like today?

The graph below shows the Eskom tariffs from 1988 to 2022, plotted against CPI (Consumer Price Index) or inflation over the same period. It also shows projections up to 2024, based on expert forecasts and inflation projections.

Note: The graph depicts overall average increases – actual increases will be different for different types of consumers (residential, commercial and industrial) and will vary between municipalities.

Looking at the graph, the following can be noted:

In the period from 1988 up to the 2008 electricity crisis, electricity tariff increases did not keep tread with inflation. This was partly due to government policy to keep electricity tariffs as low as possible for poor communities, but also due to Eskom having an oversupply of electricity (in the 1990’s) and not investing in new capacity (in the 2000’s).
Between 1988 and 2007, electricity tariffs increased by 223%, whilst inflation over this period was 335%.
From the 2008 electricity crisis onwards, there is a clear and sharp inflection point for electricity tariffs in South Africa. From 2007 to 2022, electricity tariffs increased by 653%, whilst inflation over this period was 129%. Thus, electricity tariffs increased four-fold (or quadrupled) in real money terms in 14 years.

In fact, Eskom has already applied to NERSA for a 32% tariff increase in April 2023. It has also applied to NERSA to restructure residential tariffs to ‘reflect cost drivers more accurately’. The restructured tariffs will see two main options for direct Eskom customers – Homepower and Homeflex.

For the Homepower tariff, the grid connection fee would increase from R218/month to R938/month – this is the charge before you have used a single kWh of electricity!

The Homeflex tariff will introduce time-of-use charges – in other words, the price of electricity will change depending on the time of day. (Time-of-use charges is widespread internationally, and helps to balance grid load by incentivising electricity use outside of peak hours.)

Eskom is in serious need of restructuring – which the government at last acknowledged and announced in 2019. As of October 2022 this restructuring has not yet been completed, but is in progress.

Sources:

Eskom warned its pricing itself out of the market. Website: https://techcentral.co.za/eskom-warned-its-pricing-itself-out-of-the-market/105167/. Last accessed: 2021/07/30.
Eskom tariffs and charges. Website: https://www.eskom.co.za/CustomerCare/TariffsAndCharges/Pages/Tariffs_And_Charges.aspx. Last accessed: 2022/10/20.
Stats SA. CPI History. Website: http://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/P0141/CPIHistory.pdf?. Last accessed: 2019/10/01.
Bureau for Economic Research. Inflation Expectations – History (2021). Website: https://www.ber.ac.za/BER%20Documents/Inflation-Expectations/?doctypeid=1065. Last accessed: 2021/07/30.
South Africa Inflation Expectations. Website: https://tradingeconomics.com/south-africa/inflation-expectations. Last accessed: 2022/10/20.

Image of Lethabo power station by Simisa on Wikimedia Commons [CC BY-SA 3.0]

The Price of Water and Electricity in South Africa: A Tale of Two Tragedies

18Jan

by Sean Moolman

Authors: Matthew Capes, Sean Moolman

Background

This article seeks to examine the price and affordability of water and electricity in South Africa. We embark on a tough but important journey to shed light on how the price of electricity and water has changed over the last 25 years, and how these basic needs have become less affordable for us, the citizens of South Africa.

On this journey, we discuss the following topics in 5 short chapters (click the link to go directly to a specific chapter):

The increase in Eskom’s average electricity tariff vs. inflation (CPI) – click here to read
The increase in the average municipal water and sanitation tariff for three different income levels vs. inflation (CPI) – click here to read
The contrast between the increases in South African electricity and water tariffs vs. inflation (CPI) – click here to read
How South Africans’ monthly electricity and water bills have changed in the past 25 years in both nominal and current money – click here to read
The combined electricity and water bill of an average South African household vs. average household disposable income in South Africa – click here to read

Each of the above topics is accompanied by a graph to aid the discussion and illustrate the seriousness of the situation in South Africa.

We hope to highlight the pertinence of wise water usage and efficient energy consumption and to stimulate the conversation surrounding what we could and should do to ensure sustainable and affordable access to these basic needs for all South African citizens.

For methods, assumptions and references, click here.

Chapter 1. Eskom average tariff vs. inflation (CPI)

The state of South Africa’s electricity provider, Eskom, is no secret. Plagued by ageing infrastructure, mismanagement, corruption, shrinking or stagnant revenues and increasing debt, the state-owned utility is caught in what is known as a ‘death spiral’.

The impact of these issues manifests in two ways. The first is known as load-shedding, something with which we as South Africans have become all too familiar. The second is the infamous Eskom electricity tariff increases. Ideally these tariff increases would be somewhat in line with increases in inflation… Oh what a perfect world that would be!

In sunny South Africa, electricity tariffs have increased by 512% from 2007 to 2020 (see the graph). That is 5 times faster than inflation! Eishkom?

To top it all off, Eskom was recently granted a R13 billion clawback by NERSA, as well as an additional R69 billion clawback, resulting from a court judgement in Eskom’s favour[a].

What does that mean for us? We, the citizens of South Africa, are set to experience further rapid electricity bill escalations over the next few years. It goes without saying that those increases will not be accompanied by improved service delivery.

Speaking of rapid escalations, has anyone kept an eye on their water bill? In the next chapter we take a closer look at municipal water tariffs.

Chapter 2. Average municipal water & sanitation tariff vs. inflation (CPI)

In the previous chapter we discussed the 512% increase in the average Eskom electricity tariff since 2007. We shall now embark on the 2nd leg of our journey in which we highlight an equally odious development in a tariff that has received a lot less negative press: Water and sanitation.

You are not alone if you allowed the increasing cost of your most basic need to go unnoticed…

Perhaps now is the time to explore the real water tariff trends, overshadowed by Eskom’s conspicuous plight and camouflaged by a complicated tariff structure, but which impacts our daily lives as South African citizens. Think back to ‘Day Zero’ in 2018 and the questions surrounding a lack of access to water and water insecurity in South Africa.

Now ask yourself this: Is it possible that the cost of the water provided by municipalities has increased faster than inflation, considering the deteriorating service delivery on a broader scale?

As can be seen in the graph, average municipal water tariffs have increased four times faster than inflation since 1996.

Essentially, the average municipal water tariff was almost 1300% higher in 2020 than in 1996… Unfortunately, we must bear this burden together with that of Eskom’s runaway tariffs.

In the next chapter, we compare electricity and water & sanitation tariffs over the past 25 years and consider why the increases in average municipal water tariffs have gone largely unnoticed.

Chapter 3. South African electricity and water tariffs vs. inflation (CPI)

In the previous chapter, we highlighted the dizzying increases in average municipal water tariffs since 1996. The numbers are startling to say the least, which begs us to ask: how could such exorbitant increases happen right under our noses without a public outcry?

The bulk of negative public attention and sentiment has been aimed at Eskom… Rightfully so, however, it may have distracted us from an equally pressing issue.

Water tariffs (1270%) have increased even faster than electricity tariffs (1120%) over the past 25 years (1996 to 2020).

But we have an excuse for our ignorance, for these staggering municipal water tariff increases are cloaked by more than Eskom’s shadow.

To begin with, our water tariffs appear as only one component in a larger municipal bill and are thus hidden in the details. Furthermore, every municipality sets its own water tariffs and structures them in a more complicated way than residential electricity tariffs. This tariff structure is known as block tariffs, where the price per unit of water increases in blocks as usage increases.

Consequently, it is more difficult for people to make direct comparisons and to know the real cost of each unit of water.

Our journey to unearth the truth would be incomplete without investigating the real monetary impact of these increases. How has the price of water and electricity changed over the past 25 years in current money terms? In the next chapter, we illustrate and discuss how these increases have affected our monthly electricity and water bills in both nominal and current money.

Chapter 4. South African monthly electricity and water bills 1996 to 2021 (nominal and current money)

Electricity and water tariff trends in South Africa were explored in the previous articles in this series. But this would be rather meaningless without highlighting how this translates into the monthly electricity and water bills of the average South African.

What was the monthly water and electricity bill 25 years ago compared to what we are paying today?

Not accounting for inflation, the average monthly electricity and water bill for lower to middle income families was a mere total of R161 in 1996. Fast forward to 2020 and this average monthly electricity and water bill has ballooned to R2 028!

The question you should now be asking is: “how much of that increase was due to inflation”?

As I am sure you would have guessed, the answer is not much. The next graph tells the story.

Essentially, this graph tells us that in 1996 the average electricity and water bill was R638 in today’s money. A stark contrast to the R2 028 average monthly electricity and water bill in 2020.

These prices have been adjusted for inflation and so the increases seen in the above graph are entirely the result of above-inflation tariff increases implemented by Eskom and local municipalities.

An over-arching question remains: Can we afford these exponential increases in the cost of two of our most basic needs?

We will answer this important question in the final leg of our journey, in which we compare the average electricity and water bills to the average household disposable income in South Africa over the past 25 years.

Chapter 5. Electricity & water bill vs average household disposable income in South Africa

The final leg of our journey is arguably the most pertinent. We know for certain that inflation is not the major cause of the increases in electricity and water tariffs. But the real question is: Can we afford these spiralling electricity and water bills? Did South Africans’ average income keep pace?

Looking at the above graph, the conclusion must be a deafening no. While our average monthly electricity and water bills have increased by 200% since 1996, our average household disposable income[b] has increased by a mere 37% since 1996.

The divergence between these basic costs and household income is especially pronounced from 2008 onward (the past 12 years). Furthermore, our disposable income has been impacted by economic downturns and, more recently, rising income tax rates.

Two of our basic needs have become increasingly unaffordable and we continue to struggle with load-shedding. Now more than ever, we need to take practical steps to explore alternative solutions.

Although the current outlook is bleak, there is hope on the horizon. In October 2020, the Department of Mineral Resources and Energy gazetted amendments to the electricity regulations, allowing municipalities to generate and procure their own electricity. South Africa has some of the best solar PV and wind resources in the world and the cost of these options continues to fall, making self-generation as well as the renewable aspirations of the Integrated Resource Plan (IRP) more viable every day.

Appendix A. Methods & assumptions

Average electricity consumption data for different LSM (Living Standards Measure) categories was obtained from Reference [1]. LSM 1 to 4 were classified as low income, LSM 5-6 were classified as lower to middle income and LSM 7-10 were classified as middle to upper income.
Average water consumption data for low, middle & high income households was obtained from References [2] and [3]. It was assumed that water consumption remained constant over time, although it is possible that it has reduced somewhat over the years due to increasing prices and water restrictions. However, the data in the references used ranged from 2004 to 2015 and water consumption was relatively constant over this period.
Eskom electricity tariff data were obtained from its website [4].
The Consumer Price Index (CPI) was used as inflation measure. CPI data was obtained from References [5], [6] and [7].
Municipal electricity and water & sanitation tariff data for the four metropolitan municipalities Cape Town, Johannesburg, Tshwane and eThekwini were obtained from their respective websites [8], [9], [10] and [11], as well as third-party reports [12].
Where water restrictions were in place and water restriction levels changed during the course of a municipal year (such as in Tshwane or Cape Town), the tariffs for the water restriction level that was in place for most of the year was used to calculate the average tariffs for the different income levels.
Tariffs for all income group were calculated based on the ‘single dwelling houses’ category and not for apartment buildings.
‘Indigent’ tariffs were not applied in calculation of the average tariffs for the lower income group (in other words, this group is not representative of the ‘lowest’ income group, but rather the ‘lower’ income group).
All tariffs are VAT inclusive.
All tariffs are metered tariffs (as opposed to prepaid tariffs). However, for most municipalities and in most years metered & prepaid tariffs are structured the same.
For the period 1996 to 2002, the water tariff data obtained excluded sanitation tariffs. The sanitation tariffs for this period for each of the four metro municipalities (Cape Town, Johannesburg, Tshwane and eThekwini) were estimated using the respective municipality’s average sanitation tariff as % of total water & sanitation tariff for later years for which full data was available.
Disposable income data was obtained from Reference [13].
No water & sanitation tariff data could be obtained for the four-year period 2003 to 2006. For this period, linear interpolation was done between the 2002 and 2007 tariffs for each municipality.
Average tariffs across the four metro municipalities in the study (Cape Town, Johannesburg, Tshwane and eThekwini) were calculated as simple averages (in other words, not weighted by measures such as population size).

Appendix B. References

[a] https://www.engineeringnews.co.za/article/eskom-says-it-needs-r23bn-more-from-tariffs-in-2021-to-remain-a-going-concern-2020-11-05

[b] ‘Disposable income’ is defined as the total income after tax (in other words before expenses), not income after expenses.

[1]. Goliger, A. and Cassim, A. (14 and 15 July 2017). Tipping Points: The Impacts of Rising Electricity Tariffs on Households and Household Electricity Demand. 3rd Annual Competition and Economic Regulation (ACER) 2017 Conference, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Website: http://www.competition.org.za/s/Parallel-3B_Goliger-and-Cassim_National-Treasury.pdf. Last accessed: 2017/08/21.

[2]. Viljoen N. 2015. City of Cape Town Residential Water Consumption Trend Analysis 2014/2015. Website: https://greencape.co.za/assets/Sector-files/water/Water-conservation-and-demand-management-WCDM/Viljoen-City-of-Cape-Town-residential-water-consumption-trend-analysis-2014-15-2016.pdf. Last accessed: 2020/08/02.

[3]. Bailey WR, Buckley CA. 2004. Modelling Domestic Water Tariffs. Proceedings of the 2004 Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA) Biennial Conference. Cape Town, South Africa, 2-6 May 2004. Website: https://wisa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/WISA2004-P004.pdf. Last accessed 2020/08/02.

[4]. Eskom Tariff History. Website: http://www.eskom.co.za/CustomerCare/TariffsAndCharges/Pages/Tariff_History.aspx. Last accessed: 2020/08/04.

[5]. Focus Economics. Inflation in South Africa. Website: https://www.focus-economics.com/country-indicator/south-africa/inflation. Last accessed: 2020/08/04.

[6]. Bureau for Economic Research. Inflation Expectations. Website: https://www.ber.ac.za/BER%20Documents/Inflation-Expectations/?doctypeid=1065. Last accessed: 2020/08/04.

[7]. Statistics South Africa. CPI headline inflation history. Website: http://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/P0141/CPIHistory.pdf?. Last accessed: 2020/08/04.

[8]. City of Cape Town Tariffs. Web pages:

https://www.capetown.gov.za/Family%20and%20home/residential-utility-services/residential-water-and-sanitation-services/water-and-sanitation-services-and-costs-for-formal-housing.

http://resource.capetown.gov.za/documentcentre/Documents/Forms,%20notices,%20tariffs%20and%20lists/L3-WaterSanitationRestrictionTariffs.pdf

https://resource.capetown.gov.za/cityassets/Files/Tariff_increases_from1July17.pdf

http://resource.capetown.gov.za/documentcentre/Documents/Financial%20documents/Budget%202018-2019%20Annexure%206%20Tariff%20Fees%20and%20Charges%20Book.pdf

https://www.capetown.gov.za/Family%20and%20home/Residential-utility-services/Residential-electricity-services/the-cost-of-electricity

[9]. City of Johannesburg Tariffs. Web pages:

https://www.joburg.org.za/services_/tariffs/Documents/annexure%2020.pdf

https://www.joburg.org.za/Campaigns/Documents/2014%20Documents/2014-15%20approved%20tariffs.pdf

https://www.joburg.org.za/services_/tariffs/Documents/2015-16%20tariffs%20for%20approval.pdf

https://www.joburg.org.za/services_/Documents/rates%20and%20taxes/201617%20APPROVED%20TARIFFS%20FOR%20GAZETTING.pdf

https://www.joburg.org.za/documents_/Documents/Other/traffifs/Approved%20tarrifs.compressed.pdf

https://www.joburg.org.za/services_/Documents/rates%20and%20taxes/2018-19%20APPROVED%20TARIFFS%20FOR%20COJ.pdf

https://www.joburg.org.za/documents_/Pages/Key%20Documents/other/links/tariffs/Tariffs.aspx

[10]. City of Tshwane Tariffs. Web pages:

http://www.tshwane.gov.za/sites/Departments/Financial-Services/Financial-Documents/Pages/Promulgated-Tariffs.aspx

http://www.tshwane.gov.za/sites/Departments/Financial-Services/Financial-Documents/Miscellaneous/Statistics%20and%20Tariff%20Handbook%202012.pdf

http://www.tshwane.gov.za/sites/Departments/Financial-Services/Financial-Documents/Miscellaneous/Statistics%20and%20Tariff%20Handbook%20June%202014.pdf

http://www.tshwane.gov.za/sites/Departments/Financial-Services/Financial-Documents/Pages/Miscellaneous-Documents.aspx

[11]. eThekwini Tariffs. Web pages:

http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/Bylaws_Tariffs/Tariffs/Pages/Sewage_Tariffs.aspx

http://www.durban.gov.za/Resource_Centre/Services_Tariffs/Water%20Tariffs/Forms/AllItems.aspx

http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/electricity/Tariffs/Pages/default.aspx

[12]. Third-party websites used as sources for municipal electricity, water & sanitation data:

https://greenaudits.co.za/2016/10/20/high-water-restriction-prices-for-cape-town-dec-2016/

http://www.rrva.net/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/New-Tariffs-and-Rates-for-CoJ-2011-12.pdf

https://www.timeslive.co.za/news/south-africa/2018-05-10-cape-town-explains-water-tariffs-pipe-network-costs-more-than-water/

[13]. South African Reserve Bank data. Website links:

https://www.resbank.co.za/Publications/Detail-Item-View/Pages/Publications.aspx?sarbweb=3b6aa07d-92ab-441f-b7bf-bb7dfb1bedb4&sarblist=21b5222e-7125-4e55-bb65-56fd3333371e&sarbitem=10091

https://www.resbank.co.za/Lists/News%20and%20Publications/Attachments/10091/14Statistical%20tables%20%E2%80%93%20Key%20information.pdf

2019 update: Eskom tariff increases vs inflation since 1988 (with projections to 2022)

25Oct

by Sean Moolman

(Click here for a 2022 update to this article)

In 2015 and 2017 we published infographics showing Eskom annual tariff increases since 1988 compared to inflation.

Following NERSA’s approval of a 13.87% average tariff increase in April 2019, what do the numbers look like today?

The graph below shows the Eskom tariffs from 1988 to 2019, plotted against CPI (Consumer Price Index) or inflation over the same period. It also shows projections up to 2022, based on currently projected increases as approved by NERSA (8.1% in 2020 and 5.2% in 2021), as well as Stats SA and the Bureau for Economic Research’s inflation projections.

Looking at the graph, the following can be noted:

In the period from 1988 up to the 2008 electricity crisis, electricity tariff increases did not keep tread with inflation. This was partly due to government policy to keep electricity tariffs as low as possible for poor communities, but also due to Eskom having an oversupply of electricity (in the 1990’s) and not investing in new capacity (in the 2000’s).
Between 1988 and 2007, electricity tariffs increased by 223%, whilst inflation over this period was 335%.
From the 2008 electricity crisis onwards, there is a clear and sharp inflection point for electricity tariffs in South Africa. From 2007 to 2019, electricity tariffs increased by 446%, whilst inflation over this period was 98%. Thus electricity tariffs increased more than four-fold in 12 years.
Based on the currently approved increases for 2020 and 2021, the total increase in electricity tariffs from 2007 to 2021 will be 520%. By then, electricity tariffs would have increased more than 5-fold in 14 years.

Considering the current serious state of Eskom’s debt and the fact that the country probably cannot afford for Eskom to fail, consumers can likely expect a continuance of much higher than inflation electricity price increases over the next several years. Eskom is in serious need of restructuring, but this is likely to face strong resistance from the trade unions.

Sources:

Noble B. Eskom Annual Price Increase 2019/20. Website: https://powertime.co.za/online/eskom-annual-price-increase-201920/. Last accessed: 2019/10/01.
Eskom tariffs and charges. Website: http://www.eskom.co.za/CustomerCare/TariffsAndCharges/Pages/Tariffs_And_Charges.aspx. Last accessed: 2019/10/01.
Stats SA. CPI History. Website: http://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/P0141/CPIHistory.pdf?. Last accessed: 2019/10/01.
Bureau for Economic Research. Inflation Expectations – History (2019). Website: https://www.ber.ac.za/BER%20Documents/Inflation-Expectations/?doctypeid=1065. Last accessed: 2019/10/01.
Merten M. Electricity price goes up — way beyond inflation — as Ramaphosa answers questions on Eskom in the House. Daily Maverick, 2019/03/08. Website: https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2019-03-08-electricity-price-goes-up-way-beyond-inflation-as-ramaphosa-answers-questions-on-eskom-in-the-house/. Last accessed: 2019/10/01.

Image of Arnot power station by Gerhard Roux on Wikimedia Commons [CC BY-SA 4.0]

Infographic: Eskom tariff increases vs inflation since 1988 (with projections to 2017)

25Mar

by Sean Moolman

(Click here for a 2021 update to this article)

Recently we learnt that Eskom has requested another 9.58% tariff increase from NERSA for 2015, on top of the 12.69% already approved for this year. More recently, it has emerged that Eskom is requesting what is called a “selective reopener” for 2016 and 2017 as well. In particular, it seems that Eskom is looking for an additional 9% increase in each of 2016 and 2017 – i.e. 17% increases in tariffs in both these years instead of 8%/year.

People know the power of compound interest (exponential growth!), and so it is interesting to have a look at where Eskom’s (effectively South Africa’s) electricity tariffs have come from and where they seem to be going.

The infographic below shows the Eskom tariffs from 1988 to 2015, plotted against CPI (Consumer Price Index) or inflation over the same period. It also shows projections up to 2017, based on the additional increases requested by Eskom, and based on SARB’s inflation projections.

Note: The infographic depicts overall average increases – actual increases will be different for different types of consumers (residential, commercial and industrial) and will vary between municipalities.

Looking at the graph, the following can be noted:

In the period from 1988 up to the 2008 electricity crisis, electricity tariff increases did not keep tread with inflation. This was partly due to government policy to keep electricity tariffs as low as possible for poor communities, but also due to Eskom having an oversupply of electricity (in the 1990’s) and not investing in new capacity (in the 2000’s).
Between 1988 and 2007, electricity tariffs increased by 223%, whilst inflation over this period was 335%.
From the 2008 electricity crisis onwards, there is a clear and sharp inflection point for electricity tariffs in South Africa. From 2007 to 2015, electricity tariffs increased by 300%, whilst inflation over this period was 45%. Thus electricity tariffs tripled in 8 years.
If the additional increase for 2015 (another 9.58% on top of the 12.69% already approved by NERSA) is approved, this will mean that the total increase in electricity tariffs from 2007 to 2015 would be 335%.
If the additional increases for 2016 & 2017 (another 9%/yr on top of the 8%/yr already approved by NERSA) are approved, this will mean that the total increase in electricity tariffs from 2007 to 2017 would be 495%, compared to 74% for inflation over the same period. Thus electricity tariffs would have increased 5-fold in 10 years.

We need to keep in mind that SA’s electricity is still not very expensive when compared to the rest of the world or even Africa. E.g. in 2014, Uganda, Namibia and Ghana had tariffs more than double that of South Africa. However, the problem is that the South African economy has structured itself around cheap electricity, and it will be costly to change the way things are done (behaviour) and change over to more energy-efficient infrastructure.

The SAIRR recently published a report projecting that Eskom will have another 18 000 MW supply shortfall by 2030, if our GDP grows by 3%/yr. This is in addition to Medupi, Kusile and Ingula. (See this Fin24 summary of the report.) To add insult to injury, Standard & Poor’s has just downgraded Eskom to junk status.

Considering the above, it is safe to say that we can expect to see over the next several years: (a) a continuation of the current electricity supply shortages (read: load shedding); and (b) higher-than-inflation electricity price increases. We will all need to start thinking about how we can contribute to reducing demand and minimising the impact of the supply constraints.

Sources:

Eskom Tariffs and Charges. Website: http://www.eskom.co.za/CustomerCare/TariffsAndCharges/Pages/Tariffs_And_Charges.aspx. Last accessed: 20/03/2015.
Inflation South Africa 2014. Website: http://www.inflation.eu/inflation-rates/south-africa/historic-inflation/cpi-inflation-south-africa-2014.aspx. Last accessed: 20/03/2015.
Packirisamy S. 2015. SARB lowers inflation and growth outlook. Website: http://www.momentuminv.co.za/AssetManagement_Home/SARBlowersinflationandgrowthoutlook.aspx. Last accessed: 20/03/2015.
Central Bank News. South Africa holds rate, but inflation outlook deteriorates. http://www.centralbanknews.info/2015/03/south-africa-holds-rate-but-inflation.html. Last accessed: 26/03/2015.

Tag: inflation

2022 update: Eskom tariff increases vs inflation since 1988 (with projections to 2024)